2.1 Iman Or Faith

The religion of Islam may be broadly divided into two parts — the theoretical, or, what may be called, its articles of faith or its doctrines, and the practical, which includes all that a Muslim is required to do, that is to say, the practical course to which he must conform his life. The former are called usul (plural of asl, meaning a root or a principle), and the latter furu‘ (plural of far‘, which means a branch). The former are also called ‘aqa’id (pl. of ‘aqidah, lit., what one is bound to) or beliefs, and the latter ahkam (pl. of hukm, lit., an order) or the ordinances and regulations of Islam. According to Shahrastani, the former is ma‘rifah or knowledge, and the latter ta‘ah or obedience. Thus knowledge is the root; and obedience or practice, the branch. In the Holy Qur’an the two broad divisions are repeatedly referred to as iman (faith or belief) and ‘amal (deed or action) and the two words are often used together to describe a believer; those who believe and do good is the oft recurring description of true believers. The relation of faith with deeds must be constantly borne in mind in order to understand the true meaning of Islam.

The word iman, generally translated as faith or belief, is used in two different senses in the Holy Qur’an. According to Raghib, the famous lexicologist of the Holy Qur’an, iman is sometimes nothing more than a confession with the tongue that one believes in Muhammad, as for example in these verses: “Those who believe (amanu) and those who are Jews, and the Christians, and the Sabians, whoever believes in Allah and the Last Day and does good, they have their reward with their Lord … ” (2:62); “O you who believe (amanu)! Believe in Allah and His Messenger and the Book which He has revealed to His messenger” (4:136). But, as Raghib has further explained, iman also implies the condition in which a confession with the tongue is accompanied by an assent of the heart and the carrying into practice of what is believed, as in this verse: “And those who believe in Allah and His Messengers, they are the truthful and the faithful ones with their Lord” (57:19).

The word iman is, however, also used in either of the two latter senses, meaning simply the assent of the heart or the doing of good deeds. Examples of this are: “The dwellers of the desert say: We believe (amanna). Say: You believe not, but say, We submit; and faith has not yet entered into your hearts” (49:14). Here belief clearly stands for the assent of the heart as explained in the verse itself. Or, “What reason have you that you believe not in Allah? And the Messenger invites you that you may believe in your Lord and He has indeed made a covenant with you if you are believers” (57:8), where “believe in Allah” means make sacrifices in the cause of truth, as the context shows. Thus the word iman, as used in the Holy Qur’an, signifies either simply a confession of the truth with the tongue, or simply an assent of the heart and a firm conviction of the truth brought by the Holy Prophet, or the doing of good deeds and carrying into practice of the principle accepted, or it may signify a combination of the three. Generally, however, it is employed to indicate an assent of the heart, combined, of course, with a confession with the tongue, to what the prophets bring from God, as distinguished from the doing of good deeds, and hence it is that the righteous, as already remarked, are spoken of as those who believe and do good.

In Hadith, the word iman is frequently used in its wider sense, that is to say, as including good deeds, and sometimes simply as standing for good deeds. Thus the Holy Prophet is reported to have said: “Iman (faith) has over sixty branches, and modesty (haya’) is a branch of faith” (Bu. 2:3). In another hadith the words are: “Iman has over seventy branches, the highest of which is (the belief) that nothing deserves to be worshipped except Allah (La ilaha ill-Allah), and the lowest of which is the removal from the way of that which might cause injury to any one” (M. 1:10). According to one report: “Love of the Ansar is a sign of faith” (Bu. 2:10); according to another: “One of you has no faith unless he loves for his brother what he loves for himself ” (Bu. 2:7). And a third says: “One of you has no faith unless he has greater love for me than he has for his father and his son and all the people” (Bu. 2:8). The word iman is thus applied to all good deeds and the Bukhari has as the heading of one of his chapters in the Kitab al-Iman (Book 2): “He who says, Iman is nothing but the doing of good;” in support of which he quotes verses of the Holy Qur’an. He argues from verses which speak of faith being increased, that good deeds are a part of faith, because otherwise faith could not be thus spoken of.

Just as faith (iman) is the acceptance of the truth brought by the Holy Prophet, so unbelief (kufr) is its rejection, and as the practical acceptance of the truth or the doing of a good deed is called iman or part of iman so the practical rejection of the truth or the doing of an evil deed is called kufr or part of kufr. The heading of a chapter in the Bukhari is as follows: “Acts of disobedience (ma‘asi) are of the affairs of jahiliyyah” (Bu. 2: 22). Now jahiliyyah (lit. ignorance), in the terminology of Islam, means the “time of ignorance” before the advent of the Holy Prophet, and is thus synonymous with kufr or unbelief. In support of this is quoted a report relating to Abu Dharr who said that he abused a man, addressing him as the son of a Negress, upon which the Holy Prophet remarked: “Abu Dharr! Thou findest fault with him on account of his mother; surely thou art a man in whom is jahiliyyah” (Bu. 2: 22). Thus the mere act of finding fault with a man on account of his African origin is called jahiliyyah or kufr. According to another hadith, the Holy Prophet is reported to have warned his Companions in the following words: “Beware, do not become unbelievers (kuffar, pl. of kafir) after me, so that some of you should strike off the necks of others” (Bu. 25: 132). Here the slaying of Muslims by Muslims is condemned as an act of unbelief. In another hadith, it is said: “Abusing a Muslim is transgression and fighting with him is unbelief (kufr)” (Bu. 2:36). Yet in spite of the fact that the fighting of Muslims with one another is called kufr — and those who fight among themselves are even termed unbelievers (kafirs) — in these hadith, the Holy Qur’an speaks of two parties of Muslims at war with one another as believers (mu’minin) (49:9). It is, therefore, clear that such conduct is called an act of unbelief (kufr) simply as being an act of disobedience. This point has been explained by Ibn Athir in his well-known dictionary of Hadith, the Nihayah. Writing under the word kufr, he says: “Kufr (unbelief) is of two kinds: one is denial of the faith itself, and that is the opposite of faith; and the other is denial of a far‘ (branch) of the furu‘ (branches) of Islam, and on account of it a man does not get out of the faith itself.” As already shown, the furu‘ of Islam are its ordinances, and thus the practical rejection of an ordinance of Islam, while it is called kufr, is not kufr in the technical sense, i.e. a denial of Islam itself. He also tells of an incident which throws light on this question. Azhari was asked whether a man (i.e., a Muslim) became a kafir (unbeliever) simply because he held a certain opinion, and he replied that such an opinion was kufr (unbelief): and, when pressed further, added: “The Muslim is sometimes guilty of kufr (unbelief)”. Thus it is clear that a Muslim remains a Muslim though he may be guilty of an act of unbelief (kufr).

The concluding portion of the paragraph makes it clear that a Muslim cannot properly be called a kafir (unbeliever). Every evil deed or act of disobedience being part of kufr, even a Muslim may commit an act of unbelief. And the opposite is equally true, namely, that since every good deed is a part of faith, even an unbeliever may perform an act of faith. There is nothing paradoxical in these statements. The dividing line between a Muslim and a kafir, or between a believer and an unbeliever, is confession of the Unity of God and the prophethood of Muhammad — La ilaha ill-Allah Muhammad-un Rasulu-llah. A man becomes a Muslim or a believer by making this confession and as long as he does not renounce his faith in it, he remains a Muslim or a believer technically, in spite of any opinion he may hold on any religious question, or any evil which he may commit; and a man who does not make this confession is a non-Muslim or unbeliever technically, inspite of any good that he may do. It does not mean that the evil deeds of the Muslim are not punished, or that the good deeds of the non-Muslim are not rewarded. The law of the requital of good and evil is a law apart which goes on working irrespective of creeds, and the Holy Qur’an puts it in very clear words: “So he who has done an atom’s weight of good will see it; and he who has done an atom’s weight of evil will see it” (99:7,8). A believer is capable of doing evil and an unbeliever is capable of doing good, and each shall be requited for what he does. But no one has the right to expel any one from the brotherhood of Islam so long as he confesses the Unity of God and the prophethood of Muhammad. The Holy Qur’an and the Hadith are quite clear on this point. Thus in the Holy Qur’an we have: “And say not to anyone who offers you salutation, Thou art not a believer” (4:94). The Muslim form of salutation — al-salamu‘alaikum, or peace be to you — is thus considered a sufficient indication that the man who offers it is a Muslim, and no one has the right to say to him that he is not a believer, even though he may be insincere. The Holy Qur’an speaks of two parties of Muslims fighting with each other, and yet of both as believers (mu’min): “And if two parties of the believers (mu’minin) fight with each other, make peace between them” (49:9). It then goes on to say: “The believers are but brethren; so, make peace between your brethren” (49:10).

Even those who were known to be hypocrites were treated as Muslims by the Holy Prophet and his Companions, though they refused to join the Muslims in the struggle in which the latter had to engage in self-defence, and when the reputed chief of these hypocrites, the notorious ‘Abd Allah ibn Ubayy, died, the Holy Prophet offered funeral prayers on his grave and treated him as a Muslim. Hadith is equally clear on this point. According to one hadith the Holy Prophet is reported to have said: “Whoever offers prayers as we do and turns his face to our Qiblah and eats the animal slaughtered by us, he is a Muslim for whom is the covenant of Allah and His Messenger, so do not violate Allah’s covenant” (Bu. 8:28). In another report we are told: “Three things are the basis of faith: to with-hold from one who confesses faith in la ilaha ill-Allah, you should not call him kafir for any sin, nor expel him from Islam for any deed …” (AD. 15:33). And according to a third, reported by Ibn ‘Umar, he said: “Whoever calls the people of la ilaha ill-Allah unbeliever (kafir) is himself nearer to unbelief (Kufr)” (Tb.). By the ‘people of la ilaha ill-Allah’, or the upholders of the Unity, are clearly meant the Muslims, and it is made quite evident that any one who makes a confession of the Kalimah, that there is no god but Allah and Muhammad is His Messenger, becomes a Muslim, and to call him a kafir is the greatest of sins. Thus it will be seen that membership of the brotherhood of Islam is a thing not to be tested by some great theologian, well-versed in logical quibbling, but rather by the man in the street, by the man of commonsense, or even by the illiterate man who can judge of another by his very appearance, who is satisfied with even a greeting in the Muslim style who requires no further argument when he sees a man turn his face to Qiblah, and to whom Islam means the confession of the Unity of God and the prophethood of Muhammad.

A doctrine so plainly and so forcefully taught in the Holy Qur’an and the Hadith stands in need of no support from the great and learned men among the Muslims. But, notwithstanding the schisms and differences that arose afterwards, and the numerous intricacies that were introduced into the simple faith of Islam by the logical niceties of later theologians, the principle stated above is upheld by all authorities on Islam. Thus the author of Mawaqif sums up the views of Muslim theologians in the following words: “The generality of the theologians and the jurists are agreed that none of the Ahl Qiblah (the people who recognize the Ka‘bah as qiblah) can be called kafir” (Mf. P. 600). And the famous Abu’l-Hasan Ash‘ari writes in the very beginning of his book Maqalat al-Islamiyyin wa Ikhtilafat al-Musallin: “After the death of their prophet, the Muslims became divided on many points, some of them called others dzall (straying from the right path), and some shunned others, so that they became sects entirely separated from each other, and scattered parties, but Islam gathers them all and includes them all in its sphere” (MI. pp. 1, 2). Tahawi, too, is reported as saying that “nothing can drive a man out of Iman except the denial of what makes him enter it” (Rd. III, p. 310). Similarly Ahmad ibn al-Mustafa says that it is only bigoted people who call each other kafirs, for, he adds: “Trustworthy Imams from among the Hanafis and the Shafi‘is and the Malikis and the Hanbalis and the Ash‘aris hold that none of the Ahl Qiblah can be called kafir” (MD. I, p. 46). In fact, it is the Khwarij who first introduced divisions or sectarianism into Islam by calling their Muslim brethren kafirs, simply because they disagreed with their views.

The lexicology of iman and Islam has already been explained. Originally the word iman signifies conviction of the heart, while the word Islam signifies submission and hence relates primarily to action. This difference in the original meaning finds expression both in the Holy Qur’an and the Hadith, though in ordinary use they both convey the same significance, and mu’min and Muslim are generally used interchangeably. An example of the distinction in their use in the Holy Qur’an is afforded in 49:14: “The dwellers of the desert say, we believe (amanna from iman); say, you believe not but say, We submit (aslamna from islam); and faith has not yet entered into your hearts. And if you obey Allah and His Messenger, He will not diminish aught of your deeds. Surely Allah is Forgiving, Merciful.” This does not mean, of course, that they did not believe in the prophethood of Muhammad. The significance of faith entering into the heart is made clear in the very next verse: “The believers are those only who believe in Allah and His Messenger, then they doubt not and struggle hard with their wealth and their lives in the way of Allah. Such are the truthful ones” (49:15). In fact, both the words, iman and Islam, are used to signify two different stages in the spiritual growth of man. A man is said to have believed (amana) when he simply declares his faith in the Unity of God and the prophethood of Muhammad, which in fact is the first stage of belief, because it is only by declaration of the acceptance of a principle that one makes a start; and a man is also said to have believed (amana) when he carries into practice to their utmost extent the principles in which he has declared his faith. Examples of both these uses have already been given: examples of the first are 2:62, 4:136; an example of the latter (49:15) has just been quoted above. The only difference is that in the first use, belief or iman is in its first stage a confession of the tongue — a declaration of the principle; and in the second, iman has been perfected and indicates the last stage of faith which has then entered into the depths of the heart, and brought about the change required. The same is the case with the use of the word Islam; in its first stage it is simply a willingness to submit, as in the verse quoted above (49:14); in its last it is entire submission, as in 2:112: “Nay, whoever submits himself (aslama) entirely to Allah, and he is the doer of good (to others), he has his reward from his Lord, and there is no fear for such nor shall they grieve.” Thus both iman and Islam are the same in their first and last stage — from a simple declaration they have developed into perfection — and cover all the intermediate stages. They have both a starting point and a goal; and the man who is at the starting point, the mere novice, and the man who has attained the goal, in spite of all the differences between them, are both called mu’min or Muslim, as are also those who are on their way at different stages of the journey.

The above discussion leads us also to the conclusion that there are no dogmas in Islam, no mere beliefs forced upon a man for his alleged salvation. Belief, according to Islam, is not only a conviction of the truth of a given proposition, but it is essentially the acceptance of a proposition as a basis for action. The Holy Qur’an definitely upholds this view, for, according to it, while the proposition of the existence of devils is as true as that of the existence of angels, a belief in angels is again and again mentioned as part of a Muslim’s faith whereas a disbelief in devils is clearly mentioned as necessary: “So whoever disbelieves (yakfur) in the devil and believes (yu’min) in Allah, he indeed has laid hold on the firmest handle” (2:256). The words used here for believing in God and disbelieving in devils are, respectively, iman and kufr. If iman meant simply a belief in the existence of a thing, and kufr the denial of its existence, a disbelief in devils could not have been spoken of as necessary along with a belief in God. God exists, the angels exist, the devil exists; but while we must believe in God and His angels, we must disbelieve in the devil. This is because the angel, according to the Holy Qur’an, is the being that prompts the doing of good, and the devil is the being that prompts the doing of evil, so that a belief in angels means really acting upon the promptings to do good, and a disbelief in the devil means refusing to entertain evil promptings. Thus iman (belief) really signifies the acceptance of a principle as a basis for action, and every doctrine of Islam answers to this description. There are no dogmas, no mysteries, no faith which does not require action; for every article of faith means a principle to be carried into practice for the higher development of man.

The whole of the religion of Islam is briefly summed up in the two short sentences, La ilaha ill-Allah, i.e., there is no god but Allah, or, nothing deserves to be made an object of love and worship except Allah, and Muhammad-un-Rasulullah, Muhammad is the Messenger of Allah. It is simply by bearing witness to the truth of these two simple propositions that a man enters the fold of Islam. The first part of the creed is the constant theme of the Holy Qur’an, and a faith in the Unity of God, in the fact that there is no god except Allah, is repeatedly mentioned as the basic principle, not only of Islam but of every religion revealed by God. It takes several forms: “Have they a god with Allah?” “Have they a god besides Allah?” “There is no god except Allah”; “There is no god but He”; “There is no god but Thou”; “There is no god but I.” The second part of the creed concerning the apostleship of the Holy Prophet Muhammad is also a constant theme of the Holy Qur’an, and the very words Muhammad-un Rasulullah occur in 48:29. From Hadith, too, it appears that the essential condition of the acceptance of Islam was the acceptance of these two component parts of the creed (Bu. 2:40).

The above, in the terminology of the later theologians, is called “a brief expression of faith” (iman mujmal), while the detailed expression of faith, which the later theologians call mufassal, is set forth in the very beginning of the Holy Qur’an as follows: a belief in the Unseen (i.e. God), a belief in that which was revealed to the Holy Prophet Muhammad and in that which was revealed to the Prophets before him, and a belief in the Hereafter (2:2-4). Further on in the same chapter, five principles of faith are clearly mentioned: “That one should believe in Allah and the Last Day and the Angels and the Book and Prophets” (2: 177). Again and again, the Holy Qur’an makes it clear that it is only in relation to these five that belief is required. In the Hadith there is a slight variation. Bukhari has it as follows: “That thou believe in Allah and his Angels and in the meeting with Him and His Messengers and that thou believe in the Life after death” (Bu. 2:37). It will be seen that a belief in the meeting with God is mentioned distinctly here, and while this is included in the belief in God in the Holy Qur’an in the verse quoted above, it is also mentioned distinctly on many occasions as in verse 13:2. Again, in the Hadith, the Books are not mentioned distinctly and are included in the word “Messengers.” Thus the basis of belief rests on five principles, according to the Holy Qur’an and Hadith: God, His Angels, His Prophets, His Books, and a Life after death.

As already stated, all articles of faith are in reality principles of action. Allah is the Being Who possesses all the perfect attributes and when a man is required to believe in Allah, he is really required to make himself possessor of the highest moral qualities, his goal being the attainment of the Divine Attributes. He must set before himself the highest and purest ideal which the heart of man can conceive, and make his conduct conform to that ideal. Belief in the angels means that the believer should follow the good impulses which are inherent in him, for the angel is the being who prompts the doing of good. Belief in the books of God signifies that we should follow the directions contained in them for the development of our inner faculties. Belief in apostles means that we are to model ourselves on their noble example and sacrifice our lives for humanity even as they did. Belief in the Hereafter or the Last Day tells us that physical or material advancement is not the end or goal of life; but that its real purpose is an infinitely higher one, of which the Resurrection, or the Last Day, is but the beginning.